The first
year of the Jamestown colony, 1607, was a harsh one. At the beginning July many
of the colonists (at this point the population contained 144 men) fell ill. By
September over 40 of the colonists died of illness, and the remainder were too
ill to guard against attacks by the native population, with whom they had a
tenuous peace. Edward Maria Wingfield, Virginia’s council president stated that
“gods onely mercy did now watch and Warde for us”.[1]
Compounding this problem was a lack of food, forcing Wingfield to enact strict
rationing. The rationing sowed discord among the Englishmen, with other council
members demanding Wingfield give them a larger and larger shares.
Eventually Wingfield would be deposed by the council, who accused him of
“starving the Collony”. For his part, the president swore that he had “allwayes
give[n] every man his allowance faithfully” and accused other councilors of
stealing food.[2] After Wingfield’s departure, the famines and hardship persisted, and it was
many years before life in Jamestown was no longer fraught with danger.
The experience of Wingfield is telling, as it details how quickly the social structure of the colony decayed. For a group of people from a society which prized respect for hierarchy on both sides and valued “neighborliness,” their behavior in this period as well as in the early colonies as a whole can provide valuable insight into English life. There were many important factors that caused the loss of life in the early settlements: hostile natives, poor planning and poor growing weather. However, an extremely important element should not be overlooked: the breakdown of the social structure that had been an integral part of British life. Being isolated in a new land, living among a foreign culture, and facing adversity, the adaptation and transformation of British society determined whether the colonies would survive.
Given the far reach it would eventually have, the first attempts at colonization by the English (later to be British) Crown were very unsuccessful. In response to the great territorial gains made by the Spanish, Queen Elizabeth issued patents granting the authority to colonize the Americas in the name of the Crown. It was hoped that by establishing colonies on the other side of the Atlantic, the British could both gain an important vanguard against the Spanish Empire, as well as a reliable source of income.
The initial colonies in the coastal areas of Virginia and North Carolina could be charitably described as disasters in terms of loss of life, with the first one completely disappearing within nine years and the second suffering years of starvation, disease and violence. It would only be after decades of hardship that the settlements of British North America would be stable and, perhaps most importantly to the crown, profitable.
The experience of Wingfield is telling, as it details how quickly the social structure of the colony decayed. For a group of people from a society which prized respect for hierarchy on both sides and valued “neighborliness,” their behavior in this period as well as in the early colonies as a whole can provide valuable insight into English life. There were many important factors that caused the loss of life in the early settlements: hostile natives, poor planning and poor growing weather. However, an extremely important element should not be overlooked: the breakdown of the social structure that had been an integral part of British life. Being isolated in a new land, living among a foreign culture, and facing adversity, the adaptation and transformation of British society determined whether the colonies would survive.
Given the far reach it would eventually have, the first attempts at colonization by the English (later to be British) Crown were very unsuccessful. In response to the great territorial gains made by the Spanish, Queen Elizabeth issued patents granting the authority to colonize the Americas in the name of the Crown. It was hoped that by establishing colonies on the other side of the Atlantic, the British could both gain an important vanguard against the Spanish Empire, as well as a reliable source of income.
The initial colonies in the coastal areas of Virginia and North Carolina could be charitably described as disasters in terms of loss of life, with the first one completely disappearing within nine years and the second suffering years of starvation, disease and violence. It would only be after decades of hardship that the settlements of British North America would be stable and, perhaps most importantly to the crown, profitable.
One esteemed
recipient of Queen Elizabeth’s patents was Sir Walter Raleigh, the naval
hero who helped to defeat the Spanish Armada. Under his guidance, the first
colony Roanoke, an island off the coast of modern day North Carolina, was
established and garrisoned in a 1585 expedition led by Richard Grenville. A
conflict with the local American Indian population led to an evacuation of all
but fifteen men. By the time John White[3]
returned with settlers in 1587, there was no sign of the garrison. White had
intended to settle in the Chesapeake Bay region, but the captain of three
refused to sail further north, forcing him to establish his colony in an area
known to be dangerous. After returning to England for more supplies, White was
delayed and unable to return to Roanoke until 1590, finding the site completely
deserted.
Given the
ambiguous fate of the Roanoke colonies, it is difficult to determine how the
settlers adapted to life in the New World. John White wrote an account of
Roanoke covering the initial establishment of the colony that was printed in Principal Navigations…[3] a collection of works on the early
colonial explorations, printed by Richard Hakluyt. His account reveals that the
settlement would be plagued by many of the same problems as the ultimately
successful Jamestown. The relationship English colonists had with the local
tribes would prove especially vital to the success or failure of the English in
the early colonial days. White’s initial contacts with one of the local tribes,
referred to only as “divers Savages” from the mainland, was violent. One of the
settlers, George Howe, was crab fishing alone some miles away from his
compatriots when he was violently attacked and killed by several natives. White
was uncertain as to why the natives were on Roanoke Island,[4] he theorized that they were most
likely either hunting deer or attempting to gather intelligence on the newly
arrived colonists. In any case, the group fled quickly after murdering Howe, leaving
behind a large amount of supplies.[4]
The motives behind the murder are also mysterious, and the English were unable to determine why Howe was killed. However, it can be reasonably assumed that natives felt that Howe had committed some sort of transgression and lost his life as a result. What is most important, however, is that Howe apparently felt safe enough to crab fishing alone, miles from his friends, even after the settlers arrived to find no trace of the 15 man garrison. It seems that Howe felt there was no further danger lurking on Roanoke Island. While this could have been carelessness, it also demonstrates how unprepared the English were for life in America. To the English, raised in a land with clearly defined boundaries of parishes, boroughs and counties, the New World seemed to be an untamed wilderness. A member of the 1585 expedition, Thomas Hariot, wrote extensively on the inhabitants of Virginia and North Carolina; detailing their society and cultural beliefs.[5] Hariot seems to have understood to some degree that there was great population of natives in North America, even claiming that some native towns were larger than those in England. However, he still felt that the area contained places where “no Christian prince hath any possession or dealing” that could be exploited for natural resources.[6] Hariot’s phrasing in this writing is revealing, showing that even an Englishman with extensive knowledge of the natives could still view them as little more than an obstacle, much like the rest of the environment. In later years, the outbreak of disease brought from Europe would severely reduce the native population; Hariot observed the disastrous effect of disease in his travels.[7] The effects of disease would eventually tip the scales in favor of the English settlers, but in their initial contacts with the natives, the English were at a great disadvantage.
The motives behind the murder are also mysterious, and the English were unable to determine why Howe was killed. However, it can be reasonably assumed that natives felt that Howe had committed some sort of transgression and lost his life as a result. What is most important, however, is that Howe apparently felt safe enough to crab fishing alone, miles from his friends, even after the settlers arrived to find no trace of the 15 man garrison. It seems that Howe felt there was no further danger lurking on Roanoke Island. While this could have been carelessness, it also demonstrates how unprepared the English were for life in America. To the English, raised in a land with clearly defined boundaries of parishes, boroughs and counties, the New World seemed to be an untamed wilderness. A member of the 1585 expedition, Thomas Hariot, wrote extensively on the inhabitants of Virginia and North Carolina; detailing their society and cultural beliefs.[5] Hariot seems to have understood to some degree that there was great population of natives in North America, even claiming that some native towns were larger than those in England. However, he still felt that the area contained places where “no Christian prince hath any possession or dealing” that could be exploited for natural resources.[6] Hariot’s phrasing in this writing is revealing, showing that even an Englishman with extensive knowledge of the natives could still view them as little more than an obstacle, much like the rest of the environment. In later years, the outbreak of disease brought from Europe would severely reduce the native population; Hariot observed the disastrous effect of disease in his travels.[7] The effects of disease would eventually tip the scales in favor of the English settlers, but in their initial contacts with the natives, the English were at a great disadvantage.
Following
the failure of the Roanoke colony, the successor to Queen Elizabeth, James I,
issued further patents to groups, wishing to settle in British claimed North
America.[8]
The group which won the rights to the Virginia was the London Company,
comprised of merchants and nobles from the city. In 1606, they dispatched three
ships to Virginia, with detailed orders on how to establish the colony. The man
whose name would become synonymous with Jamestown, John Smith, spent much of
the voyage clapped in irons, having been accused of plotting to overthrow the
leaders of the expedition and take control of the colony himself. Smith would
face imprisonment in the New World several times, being released after the
founding of Jamestown, captured by the Pamunkey tribe, traded to the Powhatan
Confederation, released and then accused of murder and imprisoned by the
Jamestown council to await execution as the colony was being disbanded.[9]
Smith was saved by the arrival of more settlers, and won his freedom, taking
command of the colony from 1608 until he was injured in 1609 and deposed.
Captain John
Smith is among the better documented residents of early Jamestown. This is due
to both his serving as council president in the perilous early years of
Jamestown and his voluminous (and somewhat self-aggrandizing) accounts of his
adventures. In popular historiography, Smith is often held as the man who
singlehandedly saved the colony through his forceful personality and leadership
skills. There is some degree of truth to this, as the colony’s fortunes
definitely improved during his tenure. It is far more enlightening, however, to view Smith’s actions through
the lens of the English social structure: how he subverted the English mindset,
as well as his own adherence to the English worldview.
As shown earlier, the Jamestown colony suffered from chronic shortages of food. This is somewhat baffling, given the frequent mentions of abundant game and edible plants in accounts of Virginia. Thomas Hariot correctly saw the origins of this problem in the earlier Roanoke settlement, blaming the overabundance of mostly urban and wealthy settlers among the expedition. Hariot felt that these men were accustomed to a softer sort of living, with “soft beds” and “daintie food.” Being deprived of this, “the country to them was miserable”, despite the resources available. Hariot also believed that these settlers were averse to working for the good of the community, preferring to “pamper their bellies”.[10]
As shown earlier, the Jamestown colony suffered from chronic shortages of food. This is somewhat baffling, given the frequent mentions of abundant game and edible plants in accounts of Virginia. Thomas Hariot correctly saw the origins of this problem in the earlier Roanoke settlement, blaming the overabundance of mostly urban and wealthy settlers among the expedition. Hariot felt that these men were accustomed to a softer sort of living, with “soft beds” and “daintie food.” Being deprived of this, “the country to them was miserable”, despite the resources available. Hariot also believed that these settlers were averse to working for the good of the community, preferring to “pamper their bellies”.[10]
John Smith concurred with this assessment upon taking command of Jamestown in 1608. In a startling speech before the assembled colony, Smith railed against those who refused to work, stating that the labors of 30 or 40 honest men would not be used to feed 150 “idle varlets”. From then on, the rule would be “that he who will not worke shall not eate”.[11] Captain Smith’s declaration shows one of the liabilities the English suffered due to their societal mores. According to the hierarchical society the colonists had been raised in, performing physical labor was seen as a task for the lower classes, unworthy of the more noble settlers. Smith, however, was willing to enforce harsh punishments to those who clung to these ideals and managed to get people to work, and therefore, curbed the horrific famine. Yet at the same time, it is worth noting that Smith was also reinforcing the English ideal of a community that provides for the common good.
Once Smith
had returned to England in 1609, the famines continued, and the social fabric
of the colony was ripped apart. According to William Simmons, a colonist whose
account was published alongside others in Smith’s The Generall Historie of Virginia…, the food shortage grew more and
more severe. Although the colonists had been able to receive food from the native
population, they received “mortall wounds”. Within half a year, the
colony’s population had dropped from 500 to 60 due to deaths from starvation,
disease and attacks by the natives.[12]
During this perilous time, the remaining colonists survived off of the barest of foods: roots, nuts, berries and even the skin of the horses that had since been slaughtered. Most shockingly, there were also incidences of cannibalism. Simmons reports that some colonists exhumed the body of a slain native and ate it. One went even further, murdering and cannibalizing his wife. Simmons notes that this was remembered as “the starving time”and was a source of shame for years to come. According to him, the cause of the famine was not the “barenesse and defect of the Countrie,” as the colony had never received regular supplies from England. Instead, it was the conduct of the colony and their leaders that had caused it.[13]
During this perilous time, the remaining colonists survived off of the barest of foods: roots, nuts, berries and even the skin of the horses that had since been slaughtered. Most shockingly, there were also incidences of cannibalism. Simmons reports that some colonists exhumed the body of a slain native and ate it. One went even further, murdering and cannibalizing his wife. Simmons notes that this was remembered as “the starving time”and was a source of shame for years to come. According to him, the cause of the famine was not the “barenesse and defect of the Countrie,” as the colony had never received regular supplies from England. Instead, it was the conduct of the colony and their leaders that had caused it.[13]
The popular
depiction of the Roanoke and Jamestown colonists as bumbling and naïve clearly
has some basis in truth. A great deal of mistakes and poor
leadership had led to the loss of many lives. Nevertheless, it is important
to examine why the colonies faced such travails through a more rational
framework. Apart from being undone by their personal flaws, the English
colonists were just as hampered by their adherence to a social structure that was incompatible with the life on the frontier of the New World.
Brief Bio
[1] Edward
Maria Wingfield, “A Discourse of Virginia” (date unknown, first published
1860), in Writings: With Other Narratives
of Roanoke, Jamestown, and the First English Settlement of America by John
Smith, et al. James P.P. Horn, ed. (New York: Library of America, 2007),
951-952.
[2] Wingfield,
958.
[3] John White
(date of birth and death are unknown) had been a member of the 1585 expedition
as well as a 1577 expedition to Baffin Island, Canada. White’s paintings of the
inhabitants and ecology of North Carolina would serve as the basis for widely
disseminated engravings during the 16th-17th Centuries.
[4] John White
“Narrative of his Voyage” (1589), in Writings:
With Other Narratives of Roanoke, Jamestown, and the First English Settlement
of America by John Smith, et al. James P.P. Horn, ed. (New York: Library of
America, 2007), 807-808.
[5] Thomas
Hariot (1560-1621) was scientist and scholar, the first to study North Carolina
and Virginia. A close associate of Sir Walter Raleigh, he sought to drum up
public interest in colonization by publishing a pamphlet on his observations in
1588.
[6] Thomas
Hariot, “A Briefe and True Report” (1588), in, Writings: With Other Narratives of Roanoke, Jamestown, and the First English
Settlement of America by John Smith, et al. James P.P. Horn, ed. (New York:
Library of America, 2007), 901-902.
[7] Harriot,
900.
[8] Sir Walter
Raleigh had fallen out of favor with Queen Elizabeth late in her reign, and was
imprisoned in the Tower of London intermittently and later executed during
James I’s reign in 1618.
[9] Smith also
claimed to have been enslaved by the Ottoman Turks during one of his earlier
adventures.
[10] Hariot,
877.
[11] John
Smith, “The Proceedings” (1612), in Writings:
With Other Narratives of Roanoke, Jamestown, and the First English Settlement
of America by John Smith, et al. James P.P. Horn, ed. (New York: Library of
America, 2007), 97.
[12] Several
hundred new colonists had arrived with supplies, but their ship sank off the
coast. Many of the people had been saved, but the loss of the supplies put even
more strain on the colony’s ability to feed itself.
[13] William
Simmons, “The Genrall Historie of Virginia…” (1624) in Writings: With Other Narratives of Roanoke, Jamestown, and the First
English Settlement of America by John Smith, et al. James P.P. Horn, ed.
(New York: Library of America, 2007),411-12.
No comments:
Post a Comment